absorb water but keep it longer. "Party managers and land speculators manipulated the growing excitement. It fitted well the old Jeffersonian idea of how to handle the Indians, by bringing them into "civilization. This hardy grass also grows slowly, so you only need to mow every month or so. . He encouraged white squatters to move into Indian lands, then told the Indians the government could not remove the whites and so they had better cede the lands or be wiped out. Ch7, Howard Zinn A People’s History of the United States As Long as Grass Grows or Water Runs If women, of all the But if they chose to stay they would have to abide by state laws, which destroyed their tribal and personal rights and made them subject to endless harassment and invasion by white settlers coveting their land. It was reported that when Tecumseh met with William Henry Harrison, Indian fighter and future President, the interpreter said: "Your father requests you to take a chair." .. Farewell to Black Hawk. The Cherokee nation addressed a memorial to the nation, a public plea for justice. Jackson now moved to speed up Indian removal. 1. Jackson then became governor of the Florida Territory. Fewer than a hundred Creeks had been involved in the "war," but a thousand had fled into the woods, afraid of white reprisals. Jackson established the tactic of promising rewards in land and plunder: ". Chapter 7: As Long As Grass Grows or Water Runs If women, of all the subordinate groups in a society dominated by rich white males, were closest to home (indeed, in the home), the most interior, then the Indians were the most foreign, the most exterior. Water … The Empire and the People 13. Van Every says: "The adaptation of the Seminole to his environment was to be matched only by the crane or the alligator." ." Statistics tell the story. ".. . Black Hawk's bitterness may have come in part from the way he was captured. He also, Rogin says, "practiced extensive bribery.". Congress moved quickly to pass a removal bill. As Long as Grass Grows or Water Runs. We were not safe. Slavery without Submission, Emancipation without Freedom 10. "By midwinter the interminable, stumbling procession of more than 15,000 Creeks stretched from border to border across Arkansas." Hunger came. Five regiments of regulars and four thousand militia and volunteers began pouring into Cherokee country. When the white missionaries in the Cherokee territory declared their sympathies openly for the Cherokees to stay, Georgia militia entered the territory in the spring of 1831 and arrested three of the missionaries, including Samuel Worcester. Then the army, claiming it was for their safety, removed them from Creek country to a concentration camp on Mobile Bay. With 17,000 Cherokees surrounded by 900,000 whites in Georgia, Alabama, and Tennessee, the Cherokees decided that survival required adaptation to the white man's world. But to put all the blame on white mobs, Rogin says, would be to ignore "the essential roles played by planter interests and government policy decisions." By the time Jefferson became President, in 1800, there were 700,000 white settlers west of the mountains. When Chief Black Hawk was defeated and captured in 1832, he made a surrender speech: An Indian who is as bad as the white men could not live in our nation; he would be put to death, and eaten up by the wolves. Here were some of the replies of the Seminoles at that meeting: The Indian agent managed to get fifteen chiefs and subchiefs to sign a removal treaty, the U.S. Senate promptly ratified it, and the War Department began making preparations for the migration. Rogin says it was "the largest single Indian cession of southern American land." Thousands of whites invaded, destroyed Indian property, staked out claims. On October 1, 1838, the first detachment set out in what was to be known as the Trail of Tears. General Scott addressed the Indians: Some Cherokees had apparently given up on nonviolence: three chiefs who signed the Removal Treaty were found dead. 3. (Poor whites-even if willing to give their lives at first-may have discovered the rewards of battle going to the rich.) The pressure to move west, out of Florida, mounted, and in 1834 Seminole leaders were assembled and the U.S. Indian agent told them they must move west. In late 1831, thirteen thousand Choctaws began the long journey west to a land and climate totally different from what they knew. This I promise you in the name of your great father, the President. We Take Nothing by Conquest, Thank God ›, 1. Jackson's 1829 message to Congress made his position clear: "I informed the Indians inhabiting parts of Georgia and Alabama that their attempt to establish an independent government would not be countenanced by the Executive of the United States, and advised them to emigrate beyond the Mississippi or submit to the laws of those States." They went on ox wagons, on horses, on foot, then to be ferried across the Mississippi River. The American commander later explained: "As we neared them they raised a white flag and endeavored to decoy us, but we were a little too old for them." They planned to sell it later for great profits. The Confederate States of America created nine treaties with the tribes in Indian Territory in July, August, and October of 1861. Van Every again: The first winter migration was one of the coldest on record, and people began to die of pneumonia. In the Revolutionary War, almost every important Indian nation fought on the side of the British. Treaties made under pressure and by deception broke up Creek, Choctaw, and Chickasaw tribal lands into individual holdings, making each person a prey to contractors, speculators, and politicians. A young Seminole chief, Osceola, who had been imprisoned and chained by the Indian agent Thompson, and whose wife had been delivered into slavery, became a leader of the growing resistance. The army enlisted other Indians to fight the Seminoles. Tecumseh, a Shawnee chief and noted orator, tried to unite the Indians against the white invasion: Angered when fellow Indians were induced to cede a great tract of land to the United States government, Tecumseh organized in 1811 an Indian gathering of five thousand, on the bank of the Tallapoosa River in Alabama, and told them: "Let the white race perish. Grant Foreman, the leading authority on Indian removal, estimates that during confinement in the stockade or on the march westward four thousand Cherokees died. After scouting forces were demolished one after the other, he tried to follow a policy of conciliation. This is not simply hindsight (the word used for thinking back differently on the past). Other soils are sandy, draining well and absorbing water quickly but not holding it as long as clay soils. In 1837, Osceola, under a flag of truce, had been seized and put in irons, then died of illness in prison. Six Grandfathers is the mountain in the Hills that became Mount Rushmore after it was renamed for a New York lawyer in 1885. Whites, including liquor dealers and swindlers, came swarming onto their lands. An old Choctaw chief said, responding, years before, to President Monroe's talk of removal: "I am sorry I cannot comply with the request of my father. View CH 7 Zinn's Indian Removal.pdf from ART 11229 at Antelope Valley College. Private contracts were made for the march, the same kind that had failed for the Choctaws. Some of the speculators were Founding Fathers, including George Washington and Patrick Henry. The treaty was signed anyway. Loam soil has character-istics in between those of clay and sand. Brazilian water-weed (PDF), Egeria densa, is a popular aquarium plant that can grow vigorously and choke out native vegetation once it reaches ponds, lakes and other waterbodies. 9. The Cherokees even started to emulate the slave society around them: they owned more than a thousand slaves. You do NOT have to write in complete sentences. A council of Creeks, offered money for their land, said: "We would not receive money for land in which our fathers and friends are buried." Eight hundred Creek men had volunteered to help the United States army fight the Seminoles in Florida in return for a promise that their families could remain in Alabama, protected by the federal government until the men returned. . As they moved westward, they began to die-of sickness, of drought, of the heat, of exposure. Land was indispensable for all this, and after the Revolution, huge sections of land were bought up by rich speculators, including George Washington and Patrick Henry. They seize your land; they corrupt your women, they trample on the ashes of your dead! We Take Nothing by Conquest, Thank God. The Indian Trade and Intercourse Act, passed by Congress in 1802, said there could be no land cessions except by treaty with a tribe, and said federal law would operate in Indian territory. Women, because they were so near and so needed, were dealt with more by patronization than by force. Every time a treaty was signed, pushing the Creeks from one area to the next, promising them security there, whites would move into the new area and the Creeks would feel compelled to sign another treaty, giving up more land in return for security elsewhere. Indian territory was divided up, to be distributed by state lottery. They murdered white families, captured slaves, destroyed property. The Creeks had been fighting for their land ever since the years of Columbus, against Spaniards, English, French, and Americans. The Empire and the People; 13. Daniel Webster was making a rousing speech in the Senate for the "authority of law ... the power of the general government," but he was not referring to Alabama, Georgia, and the Indians- he was talking about South Carolina's nullification of the tariff. The Indians would not be "forced" to go West. 5. We Take Nothing by Conquest, Thank God 9. range of soils. Bahiagrass is a prolific seed-producing plant. They even welcomed missionaries and Christianity. Jackson began raids into Florida, arguing it was a sanctuary for escaped slaves and for marauding Indians. Jackson ordered federal troops to remove them, but also ordered Indians as well as whites to stop mining. Fleur de Lawn Atrocities took place on both sides. The Indian, not needed-indeed, an obstacle-could be dealt with by sheer force, except that sometimes the language of paternalism preceded the burning of villages. . Instead, the Seminoles began a series of guerrilla attacks on white coastal settlements, all along the Florida perimeter, striking in surprise and in succession from the interior. again and again, General, beware of surprise.". It can be propagated from fragments; no flowers are produced. Jackson deployed an army major to tell the Choctaw and Cherokee Indians to leave their territory, promising them that they’d be allowed to stay in their new territory, “as long as the grass grows or water runs.” As governor of the Michigan Territory, Cass took millions of acres from the Indians by treaty: "We must frequently promote their interest against their inclination. 2. ", Not all the Indians responded to the white officials' common designation of them as "children" and the President as "father." In April 1838, Ralph Waldo Emerson addressed an open letter to President Van Buren, referring with indignation to the removal treaty with the Cherokees (signed behind the backs of an overwhelming-majority of them) and asked what had happened to the sense of justice in America: Thirteen days before Emerson sent this letter, Martin Van Buren had ordered Major General Winfield Scott into Cherokee territory to use whatever military force was required to move the Cherokees west. A Seminole chief had said to John Quincy Adams: "Here our navel strings were first cut and the blood from them sunk into the earth, and made the country dear to us. Now the Georgia whites stepped up their attacks to speed the removal. We Take Nothing by Conquest, Thank God, 9. We find these in Michael Rogin's Fathers and Children: In 1790, there were 3,900,000 Americans, and most of them lived within 50 miles of the Atlantic Ocean. When the warriors returned from the Seminole War, they and their families were hustled west. He is resolved to sweep them from the face of the earth. Water stargrass is a bay grass with long, grass-like leaves and distinctive yellow, star-like flowers along freely branching stems. Frontier figures like Davy Crockett and Sam Houston came out of this setting, and both-unlike Jackson-became lifelong friends of the Indian. ", The Creeks, who occupied most of Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, were divided among themselves. And so the government began to play Cherokee against Cherokee, the old game. This was called speculating. The white men do not scalp the head; but they do worse-they poison the heart.. . Immediately the Jackson administration took away Worcester's job, and the militia moved in again that summer, arresting ten missionaries as well as the white printer of the Cherokee Phoenix. By 1830, there were 13 million Americans, and by 1840, 4,500,000 had crossed the Appalachian Mountains into the Mississippi Valley-that huge expanse of land crisscrossed by rivers flowing into the Mississippi from east and west. Most of them had been forced to migrate westward. Black Hawk fled; he was pursued and captured by Sioux in the hire of the army. It granted Indians individual ownership of land, thus splitting Indian from Indian, breaking up communal landholding, bribing some with land, leaving others out-introducing the competition and conniving that marked the spirit of Western capitalism. His easy reelection in 1832 (687,000 to 530,000 for his opponent Henry Clay) suggested that his anti-Indian policies were in keeping with popular sentiment, at least among those white males who could vote (perhaps 2 million of the total population of 13 million). (An Indian GI, veteran of Vietnam, testifying publicly in 1970 not only about the horror of the war but about his own maltreatment as an Indian, repeated that phrase and began to weep.) But the word "force" cannot convey what happened. The Choctaws did not want to leave, but fifty of their delegates were offered secret bribes of money and land, and the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek was signed: Choctaw land east of the Mississippi was ceded to the United States in return for financial help in leaving, compensation for property left behind, food for the first year in their new homes, and a guarantee they would never again be required to move. It took land from Creeks who had fought with Jackson as well as those who had fought against him, and when Big Warrior, a chief of the friendly Creeks, protested, Jackson said: As Rogin puts it: "Jackson had conquered 'the cream of the Creek country,' and it would guarantee southwestern prosperity. Stolons are pressed firmly to the ground, have short internodes, and root freely from the nodes forming a dense sod. The Choctaws and Chickasaws had quickly agreed to migrate. General George Washington had once given parting advice to one of his officers: "General St. Clair, in three words, beware of surprise... . will forbear no longer. The proper tactic had now been found. The Cherokees' language-heavily poetic, metaphorical, beautifully expressive, supplemented by dance, drama, and ritual-had always been a language of voice and gesture. signatories "have the right to continue with our way of life for as long as the sun shines, the grass grows and the rivers flow" without forced interference as though never entered the treaty; and The rights provided for in Treaty 8 are constitutionally recognized and affirmed by section 35 of Leaving his military post, he also gave advice to officers on how to deal with the high rate of desertion. Al-lowing your animals to graze throughout the year significantly reduces grass growth later. Water this lawn once a month or less, and it will still grow a thick, verdant green. He became a hero of the War of 1812, which was not (as usually depicted in American textbooks) just a war against England for survival, but a war for the expansion of the new nation, into Florida, into Canada, into Indian territory. Georgia passed a law making it a crime for a white person to stay in Indian territory without taking an oath to the state of Georgia. They moved down into north Florida from St. Augustine to Pensacola, and down the fertile coastal strip. As for the poor white frontiersman, he played the part of a pawn, pushed into the first violent encounters, but soon dispensable. As for the Cherokees, they faced a set of laws passed by Georgia: their lands were taken, their government abolished, all meetings prohibited. They became farmers, blacksmiths, carpenters, masons, owners of property. But the Sac and Fox Indians of Illinois were removed, after the Black Hawk War (in which Abraham Lincoln was an officer, although he was not in combat). The flat, tough-textured leaves are usually hairless; with blades 1/8-1/4 inch wide and 8-20 Zinn Chapter 7: As Long as Grass Grows or Water Runs Questions. 6. These laws did away with the tribe as a legal unit, outlawed tribal meetings, took away the chiefs' powers, made the Indians subject to militia duty and state taxes, but denied them the right to vote, to bring suits, or to testify in court. ", He reiterated a familiar theme. ‘Sapphire’ should be mowed to a height of 2–2.5 inches. AS LONG AS GRASS GROWS OR WATER RUNS From Indian Fighter to President AFTER THE REVOLUTION, RICH AMERICANS bought up huge pieces of land on the frontier. As Long as Grass Grows or Water Runs 8. ", If the Indians would only move to new lands across the Mississippi, Cass promised in 1825 at a treaty council with Shawnees and Cherokees, "The United States will never ask for your land there. A Moravian minister who lived among them described Indian society: Now, surrounded by white society, all this began to change. He ordered Worcester freed. The Intimately Oppressed. Not all his enlisted men were enthusiastic for the fighting. Many of these settlers harassed Indians—in effect, pressuring them to leave their lands and go west. ", His article in the North American Review in 1830 made the case for Indian Removal. Two measures are deemed expedient. By 1844, fewer than 30,000 were left. However, federal treaties and federal laws gave Congress, not the states, authority over the tribes. “As Long as Grass Grows, in the way no other study has done, brilliantly connects historic and ongoing Native American resistance to US colonialism with the movement for environmental justice. We must not regret, he said, "the progress of civilization and improvement, the triumph of industry and art, by which these regions have been reclaimed, and over which freedom, religion, and science are extending their sway." Jackson's instructions to an army major sent to talk to the Choctaws and Cherokees put it this way: That phrase "as long as Grass grows or water runs" was to be recalled with bitterness by generations of Indians. Jackson wrote to his wife about "the once brave and patriotic volunteers .. . But by 1832 they had been reduced to a small area in Alabama, while the population of Alabama, growing fast, was now over 300,000. The same year Jackson was declaring states' rights for Georgia on the Cherokee question in 1832, he was attacking South Carolina's right to nullify a federal tariff. However: "The waves of population and civilization are rolling to the westward, and we now propose to acquire the countries occupied by the red men of the South and West by a fair exchange. It did not mention force, but provided for helping the Indians to move. The Creeks did not resist, no shots were fired, they surrendered. No talk of compensating them for land or property left behind. A barbarous people, depending for subsistence upon the scanty and precarious supplies furnished by the chase, cannot live in contact with a civilized community. The Creeks and Choctaws remained on their individual plots, but great numbers of them were defrauded by land companies. None of this made them more desirable than the land they lived on. A Creek man more than a hundred years old, named Speckled Snake, reacted to Andrew Jackson's policy of removal: Brothers! Landscapes built on loam need moderate amounts of water, and loam retains moderate amounts. The war went on for years. It went down in the Mississippi River and 311 people died, four of them the children of the Indian commander of the Creek volunteers in Florida. Jefferson's talk of "agriculture . Jackson ignored this, and supported state action. They gave up 5 million acres, with the provision that 2 million of these would go to individual Creeks, who could either sell or remain in Alabama with federal protection. The white men are bad schoolmasters; they carry false books, and deal in false actions; they smile in the face of the poor Indian to cheat him; they shake them by the hand to gain their confidence, to make them drunk, to deceive them, and ruin our wives. Food disappeared. Jackson played a key role in those treaties, and, according to Rogin, "His friends and relatives received many of the patronage appointments-as Indian agents, traders, treaty commissioners, surveyors and land agents....", Jackson himself described how the treaties were obtained: "... we addressed ourselves feelingly to the predominant and governing passion of all Indian tribes, i.e., their avarice or fear." Columbus, The Indians, and Human Progress, 8. It is susceptible to most major pests associated with St. Augustinegrass. His son-in-law made twenty-two trips out of Nashville in 1795 for land deals. The slaves often lived in their own villages, their children often became free, there was much intermarriage between Indians and blacks, and soon there were mixed Indian-black villages-all of which aroused southern slaveowners who saw this as a lure to their own slaves seeking freedom. Indians complained to Washington, and Lewis Cass replied: The Creeks, defrauded of their land, short of money and food, refused to go West. Finally, in the 1840s, the Seminoles began to get tired. It passed the House 102 to 97. . Slavery Without Submission, Emancipation Without Freedom. We lived in danger. Their extinction is inevitable." White men were allowed to visit the Indian communities and Indians often were guests in white homes. His Secretary of War, Henry Knox, said: "The Indians being the prior occupants, possess the right of the soil." He wished that all this could have been done with "a smaller sacrifice; that the aboriginal population had accommodated themselves to the inevitable change of their condition... . Most of the Choctaws and some of the Cherokees were gone, but there were still 22,000 Creeks in Alabama, 18,000 Cherokees in Georgia, and 5,000 Seminoles in Florida. In the Senate, Henry Clay of Kentucky opposed the war; he was an enemy of Jackson, a critic of Indian removal. . To a friend, a surgeon-general in the army, he suggested buying as many slaves as possible, because the price would soon rise. They moved into Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, in the North; into Alabama and Mississippi in the South. John Donelson, a state surveyor, ended up with 20,000 acres of land near what is now Chattanooga. .. . In the summer, a major cholera epidemic hit Mississippi, and Choctaws died by the hundreds. Another Seminole provocation: escaped black slaves took refuge in Seminole villages. Tyranny is Tyranny. Here were the villages of the Seminole Indians, joined by some Red Stick refugees, and encouraged by British agents in their resistance to the Americans. These West Cherokees now had to move farther west, this time to arid land, land too barren for white settlers. sunk ... to mere whining, complaining, seditioners and mutineers.. .." When a seventeen-year-old soldier who had refused to clean up his food, and threatened his officer with a gun, was sentenced to death by a court-martial, Jackson turned down a plea for commutation of sentence and ordered the execution to proceed. His white troops had failed in a frontal attack on the Creeks, but the Cherokees with him, promised governmental friendship if they joined the war, swam the river, came up behind the Creeks, and won the battle for Jackson. He acted, he said, by the "immutable laws of self-defense.". Jackson was a land speculator, merchant, slave trader, and the most aggressive enemy of the Indians in early American history. Georgia now put Cherokee land on sale and moved militia in to crush any sign of Cherokee resistance. The Other Civil War; 11. He has tried to reclaim them, and they grow worse. Everything was disorganized. First to encourage them to abandon hunting... - Secondly, To Multiply trading houses among them ... leading them thus to agriculture, to manufactures, and civilization....".
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